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Abstract We present velocity-resolved Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA)/upgrade German REceiver for Astronomy at Terahertz Frequencies observations of [O i ] and [C ii ] lines toward a Class I protostar, L1551 IRS 5, and its outflows. The SOFIA observations detect [O i ] emission toward only the protostar and [C ii ] emission toward the protostar and the redshifted outflow. The [O i ] emission has a width of ∼100 km s −1 only in the blueshifted velocity, suggesting an origin in shocked gas. The [C ii ] lines are narrow, consistent with an origin in a photodissociation region. Differential dust extinction from the envelope due to the inclination of the outflows is the most likely cause of the missing redshifted [O i ] emission. Fitting the [O i ] line profile with two Gaussian components, we find one component at the source velocity with a width of ∼20 km s −1 and another extremely broad component at −30 km s −1 with a width of 87.5 km s −1 , the latter of which has not been seen in L1551 IRS 5. The kinematics of these two components resemble cavity shocks in molecular outflows and spot shocks in jets. Radiative transfer calculations of the [O i ], high- J CO, and H 2 O lines in the cavity shocks indicate that [O i ] dominates the oxygen budget, making up more than 70% of the total gaseous oxygen abundance and suggesting [O]/[H] of ∼1.5 × 10 −4 . Attributing the extremely broad [O i ] component to atomic winds, we estimate an intrinsic mass-loss rate of (1.3 ± 0.8) × 10 −6 M ⊙ yr −1 . The intrinsic mass-loss rates derived from low- J CO, [O i ], and H i are similar, supporting the model of momentum-conserving outflows, where the atomic wind carries most momentum and drives the molecular outflows. 

We report results of a project to map HCN and HCO+ J=1→0 emission toward a sample of molecular clouds in the inner Galaxy, all containing dense clumps that are actively engaged in star formation. We compare these two molecular line tracers with millimeter continuum emission and extinction, as inferred from 13CO, as tracers of dense gas in molecular clouds. The fraction of the line luminosity from each tracer that comes from the dense gas, as measured by AV>8 mag, varies substantially from cloud to cloud. In all cases, a substantial fraction (in most cases, the majority) of the total luminosity arises in gas below the AV>8 mag threshold and outside the region of strong millimeter continuum emission. Measurements of L(HCN) toward other galaxies will likely be dominated by such gas at lower surface densities. Substantial, even dominant, contributions to the total line luminosity can arise in gas with densities typical of the cloud as a whole (n ∼ 100 cm-3). Defining the dense clump from the HCN or HCO+ emission itself, similarly to previous studies, leads to a wide range of clump properties, with some being considerably larger and less dense than in previous studies. HCN and HCO+ have a similar ability to trace dense gas for the clouds in this sample. For the two clouds with low virial parameters, 13CO is definitely a worse tracer of the dense gas, but for the other four, it is equally good (or bad) at tracing dense gas. 

ABSTRACT The ATOMS, standing for ALMA Three-millimeter Observations of Massive Star-forming regions, survey has observed 146 active star-forming regions with ALMA band 3, aiming to systematically investigate the spatial distribution of various dense gas tracers in a large sample of Galactic massive clumps, to study the roles of stellar feedback in star formation, and to characterize filamentary structures inside massive clumps. In this work, the observations, data analysis, and example science of the ATOMS survey are presented, using a case study for the G9.62+0.19 complex. Toward this source, some transitions, commonly assumed to trace dense gas, including CS J = 2−1, HCO+J = 1−0, and HCN J = 1−0, are found to show extended gas emission in low-density regions within the clump; less than 25 per cent of their emission is from dense cores. SO, CH3OH, H13CN, and HC3N show similar morphologies in their spatial distributions and reveal well the dense cores. Widespread narrow SiO emission is present (over ∼1 pc), which may be caused by slow shocks from large–scale colliding flows or H ii regions. Stellar feedback from an expanding H ii region has greatly reshaped the natal clump, significantly changed the spatial distribution of gas, and may also account for the sequential high-mass star formation in the G9.62+0.19 complex. The ATOMS survey data can be jointly analysed with other survey data, e.g. MALT90, Orion B, EMPIRE, ALMA_IMF, and ALMAGAL, to deepen our understandings of ‘dense gas’ star formation scaling relations and massive protocluster formation.